Software Design X-Rays
from Adam Tornhill
Pitch
Are you working on a codebase where cost overruns, death marches, and heroic fights with legacy code monsters are the norm? Battle these adversaries with novel ways to identify and prioritize technical debt, based on behavioral data from how developers work with code. And that’s just for starters. Because good code involves social design, as well as technical design, you can find surprising dependencies between people and code to resolve coordination bottlenecks among teams. Best of all, the techniques build on behavioral data that you already have: your version-control system. Join the fight for better code!
Use statistics and data science to uncover both problematic code and the behavioral patterns of the developers who build your software. This combination gives you insights you can’t get from the code alone. Use these insights to prioritize refactoring needs, measure their effect, find implicit dependencies between different modules, and automatically create knowledge maps of your system based on actual code contributions.
Infographic
Part I — Prioritize and React to Technical Debt
Why Technical Debt Isn’t Technical ?
Technical debt is a metaphor that lets developers explain the need for refactorings and communicate technical trade-offs to business people.
Technical-debt decisions apply both at the
Micro level where we may choose to hack in a new feature with the use of complex conditional logic
Macro level when we make architectural trade-offs to get the system through yet another release
Technical debt is a strategic business decision rather than a technical one
Keep a decision log :
Human memory is fragile
Cognitive biases are real
A project decision log will be a tremendous help in keeping track of your rationale for accepting technical debt
Jotting down decisions on a wiki or shared document helps you maintain knowledge over time.
Technical debt is frequently misused to describe legacy code
In fact, the two terms are often used interchangeably to describe code that
Lacks quality, and we didn’t write ourselves
Interest Rate Is a Function of Time
Just because some code is bad doesn’t mean it’s technical debt. It’s not technical debt unless we have to pay interest on it, and interest rate is a function of time.
We would need a time dimension on top of our code to reason about interest rate
Your Mental Models of Code
As programmers we need to serve two audiences :
Machine that executes our programs :
Doesn’t care much about style
Is annoyingly pedantic about content and pretty bad at filling in the gaps
Programmers maintaining our code :
Has much more elaborate mental processes
Needs our guidance to use those processes efficiently
As we learn a topic we build mental representations of that domain : schemas
A schema : theoretical construct used to describe the way we organize knowledge in our memory and how we use that knowledge for a particular event.
Understanding code also builds on schemas :
General schemas for syntactic and semantic knowledge
Like knowing the construction order of a class hierarchy in C++
Building expertise means evolving better and more efficient mental models.
Quality Suffers with Parallel Development
Practices like peer reviews and coding standards help you mitigate the problems with parallel development by catching misunderstandings and enforcing a degree of consistency.
The structure of the development organization is a stronger predictor of defects than any code metrics.
The risk that a specific commit introduces a defect increases with the number of developers who have previously worked on the modified code.
Mine Your Organization’s Collective Intelligence
How do we uncover the areas in need of improvement?
Where’s the code with the highest interest rate?
Does our architecture support the way our system evolves?
Are there any productivity bottlenecks for interteam coordination?
Identify Code with High Interest Rates
Measure Interest Rates
Refactoring complex code is a high-risk and expensive activity, so you want to ensure your time is well invested
Sometimes most development activity is focused on a relatively small part of the codebase
Change Frequency = a proxy for Interest Rate
Prioritize Technical Debt with Hotspots
A hotspot is complicated code that you have to work with often.
Hotspots are calculated by combining the two metrics we’ve explored:
Calculating the change frequency of each file as a proxy for interest rate
Using the lines of code as a simple measure of code complexity
Use Hotspots to Improve, Not Judge
It’s easy to critique code in retrospect.
Remember that we don’t know the original context in which the code was developed
Code is often written under strong pressures of time constraints and changing requirements.
Evaluate Hotspots with Complexity Trends
We can find out how severe a potential problem is via a complexity trend analysis, which looks at the accumulated complexity of the file over time.
The trend is calculated by fetching each historic version of a hotspot and calculating the code complexity of each historic revision.
What Is Complexity, Anyway?
Get more insights if the trend is capable of differentiating between
Growth in pure size
Versus growth in complexity
The indentation-based complexity metric provides one such approach
Simple metric that has the advantage of being language neutral
Use X-Rays to Get Deep Insights into Code
X-Ray gives you a prioritized list of the methods to inspect and, possibly, refactor :
Coupling in Time: A Heuristic for the Concept of Surprise
Change coupling can helps us design better software as we uncover expensive change patterns in our code
Uncover Expensive Change Patterns
How do we know if a software design is any good?
Most answers concern facets of programming such as the importance of naming, testability, and cohesion
We’ll go beyond that and assert that none of those qualities matter unless our software design supports the kind of changes we need to make to the code
Code under active development is a moving target
What Is Change Coupling?
Change coupling is different from how we programmers typically talk about coupling.
Change coupling is invisible in the code itself
We mine it from our code’s history and evolution
Change coupling means that two (or more) files change together over time
First coupling criterion : when files are changed within the same commit
Change Coupling Both Is and Isn’t Temporal Coupling
Look for surprising patterns when investigating change coupling
Surprise is one of the most expensive things you can put into a software architecture
Suffer the consequences of any surprising change
Software bugs thrive on surprises
Change coupling itself is neither good nor bad; it all depends on context
A unit test that changes together with the code under test is expected
Should be worried if not
Indicate that our tests aren’t kept up to date
On the other hand, if two seemingly independent classes change together over time we might have discovered :
An erroneous abstraction
Copy-pasted code
or—as is often the case—both
Calculate Change Coupling from the Command Line by using code-maat
Minimize Your Investigative Efforts
Change coupling analysis gives us information on how our code grows, which lets us detect implicit dependencies that point to code that’s hard to maintain.
Some of the worst hotspots and design issues tend to be in automated tests
Often missing abstractions:
Test Data: We need to model the domain of our tests and express the concept of test data
Assertions: We need a specialized assertion statement that encapsulates our test criteria
The Power of Language-Neutral Analyses
The power of language-neutral analyses is that we can spot relationships between files implemented in different languages
Today’s systems are often polyglot codebases
Pay Off Your Technical Debt
Refactoring code that’s under heavy development, perhaps even shared between multiple teams, adds another dimension to the problem.
Follow the Principle of Proximity
Proximity focuses on
How well organized your code is with respect to
Readability and change
Proximity implies that functions that are changed together are moved closer together. Proximity is both a design principle
Proximity principle is a refactoring technique that uses feedback from how our code evolves :
By ordering our functions and methods according to our change patterns
We communicate information that isn’t expressible in programming-language syntax
Automate Proximity Recommendations
A proximity refactoring serves as a mental note that the two functions belong together.
Refactor Congested Code with the Splinter Pattern
Splinter pattern provides a structured way to break up hotspots into
Manageable pieces that can be divided among several developers to work on
Parallel Development Is at Conflict with Refactoring
Our refactoring goal conflicts with the short-term evolution of the overall system
Most organizations just cannot afford to pause ongoing work
so that we can refactor in a safe, development-free vacuum
The splinter pattern resolves this dilemma by recognizing that refactoring a hotspot is an iterative process
In a splinter refactoring you
Won’t even improve the code quality as such
BUT rather transform the code to a structure where multiple people can work together in parallel toward the overall refactoring goal.
Split a Hotspot File Along Its Responsibilities
The intent of the splinter pattern is to break a hotspot into smaller parts along its responsibilities while maintaining the original API for a transient period.
Keep the original method signatures and replace the method bodies with a simple delegation to the extracted modules.
Steps behind an iterative splinter refactoring :
Ensure your tests cover the splinter candidate : have an adequate test suite
Identify the behaviors inside your hotspot : look at the names of the methods inside the hotspot / identify code that forms groups of behaviors
Refactor for proximity : form groups of functions with related behavior inside the larger file, based on the behaviors you identified earlier
Extract a new module for the behavior with the most development activity : use X-Ray
Delegate to the new module. Replace the body of the original methods with delegations to your new module
Perform the necessary regression tests to ensure you haven’t altered the behavior of the system
Select the next behavior to refactor and start over at step 4
Consequences of Splinters
The hotspot now acts as a facade that maintains the original API
The Curse of a Successful System
Much code decay isn’t due to incompetence but rather is owed to the success of an evolving product.
The Principles of Code Age
Stabilize Code by Age :
Organize our code by its age
Turn stable packages into libraries
Move and refactor code we fail to stabilize
Related advantages
Promotes long-term memory models of code : Stable packages serve as chunks that remain valid over time, which means our expectations of a piece of code won’t be broken
Lessens cognitive load since there’s less active code : The more code you manage to stabilize, the less knowledge you need to keep in your head
Prioritizes test suites to shorten lead times : Identify which parts of the software you can safely skip test runs
3 generations of code
Dan North claims that we want our code to be either :
very recent
Or old
The kind of code that’s hard to understand lies in between these two extremes
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve
To retain the information we need to repeat it, and with each repetition we’re able to improve our performance by remembering more.
Each time we revisit mid-aged code we need to relearn its inner workings, which comes at a cost of both time and effort.
Part II - Work with Large Codebases and Organizations
Work at an architectural level to gain insights into the system as a whole.
Spot Your System’s Tipping Point
Use social code analysis to make sense of large-scale systems by
Breaking them down into subsystems
Large systems become even more complex once we add the social dimension
As a project grows beyond 12 or 15 developers :
Coordination, motivation and communication issues tend to cause a significant cost overhead.
Know if a specific part of the code is a coordination bottleneck
The scale of a codebase has to be reflected in both the organization of people and the architecture of the system.
Divide and Conquer with Architectural Hotspots
Identify your architectural boundaries:
Sometimes those boundaries are documented
If not, you need to reverse-engineer those boundaries, and a good starting point is to base them on the folder structure of the codebase.
Run a hotspot analysis on an architectural level :
Identify the subsystems with the most development effort
Visualize the complexity trend of a whole architectural component.
Analyze the files in each architectural hotspot :
Focus on individual files
Our analysis scope is smaller since we focus on one subsystem at a time
Always remember that just because some code is a hotspot, that doesn’t necessarily mean it’s a problem.
A hotspot means
We’ve identified a part of the code that requires our attention
Since it attracts many changes
The more often something is changed
The more important it is that the corresponding code is of
High quality so
all those changes are simple and low risk
Analyze subsystems
Size alone may be problematic
Large files are likely to contain many different responsibilities and be hard to navigate
Complexity trends of the code
Prioritize Function Hotspots and Code Clones
Launch X-Ray on
Have a prioritized list of refactoring candidates
There are no hard rules, but with a heuristic you want to inspect the top 10 hotspots in your subsystem.
Fight the Normalization of Deviance
Each time you accept a risk, the deviations become the new normal. (see Challenger Launch study by sociologist Diane Vaughan)
We have plenty of normalization of deviance in software development :
Inherit a file with 15,000 lines of code
First : shocked by the amount of code and the lack of higher-level organization.
But if you work with that code long enough
Those 15,000 lines become the new normal
Besides, what difference does a few more lines of code make?
Get a Whistleblower
Complexity trends serve as excellent whistleblowers by giving us an unbiased frame of reference that helps us detect when we accept a quality ditch too much
Decide upon a sample interval—for example, once per month.
Calculate a complexity trend for each file in the logical component
Aggregate the individual trends into a single trend
Communicate with Nontechnical Managers - Data buys trust
Start by calculating the percentage of commits that involve your top hotspots
10 to 15 percent is common
To show your managers how important that code is for your ability to support new features and innovations
Follow up with the corresponding complexity trends to explain that the code gets worse over time, which will slow you down
Add the people side to your presentation to highlight that the hotspots are coordination bottlenecks too.
Later you can visualize the effects of a refactoring with a steep downward trend of your prioritized hotspot.
Beyond Conway’s Law
Interteam communication is an inevitable aspect of building large systems, and thus ease of communication should be a key nonfunctional requirement of any architecture :
Development productivity increases with better socio-technical congruence
Excess coordination needs correlate directly to increased lead times
The number of authors behind each component provides a shallow indication of coordination needs, and is just a starting point.
Rank Code by Diffusion
Ranks all the modules in our codebase based on how diffused the development effort is
Then use that as a proxy for coordination needs
This is a quantitative metric that we get through a fractal value analysis
A fractal value is an algorithm that delivers a normalized value between 0.0 and 1.0 based on how many different authors have contributed and how the work is distributed among them.
0 : Single author
1 : the more contributors there are
React to Developer Fragmentation
There is a strong correlation between the fractal value of a module and the number of reported bugs.
Use the fractal values to :
Prioritize code reviews : Code reviews done right are a proven defect-removal
Focus tests : Identify the areas of the code where you need to focus extra tests
Replan suggested features :
Before you start on a new feature, measure the development fragmentation over the past weeks.
If your planned work involves an area of the code with high developer congestion
Replan and delay the start on any new feature implementation.
Redesign for increased parallelism : identify candidates for splinter refactorings allowing people to work more independently.
Introduce areas of responsibility : reassess the current ways of working, perhaps by introducing teams that are aligned with the structure of the codebase
Code Ownership and Diffusion of Responsibility
Psychological phenomenon called diffusion of responsibility :
In larger groups we don’t feel a personal sense of responsibility
We assume someone else should react and help.
Code Ownership Means Responsibility
Ownership is a mechanism to counter the diffusion of responsibility
It suggests that someone takes personal responsibility for the quality and future of a piece of code
Provide Broad Knowledge Boundaries
Several techniques for it :
Invite people from other teams to code reviews
Schedule recurring sessions where you present walkthroughs of a solution or design
Encourage people to rotate teams
The key to finding the right boundaries is to make it a deliberate rather than an accidental designation.
Motivation Losses in Teams
Social loafing is a type of motivation loss that may occur when we feel that the success of our team depends little on our actual effort.
We pretend to do our part of the work, when in reality we just try to look busy and hope our peers keep up the effort.
Several factors can minimize the risk of social loafing:
Small groups
Evaluation : Code reviews done right have positive motivational effects the reviews show that someone else cares about your contribution
Leadership by example : need to model the behaviors you want to see in others
Visibility: Recognize each person’s contributions by presenting knowledge maps that show the main contributors behind each module
Guide On- and Off-boarding with Social Data
Identify the Experts
One of the challenges of communication is to find out who to communicate with, and this general problem gets harder with geographical distance.
The knowledge map represents the main developer behind each file with a unique color.
Measure Upcoming Knowledge Loss
This analysis uses the same data as the knowledge maps; the only difference is that we form two virtual teams:
One for people who actively work on the codebase
One for people who are about to leave
React to Knowledge Loss
When a developer resigns and has a notice period to work out, run this analysis to identify the parts of the system where your organization needs to focus to maintain knowledge.
Know the Biases and Workarounds for Behavioral Code Analysis
Need a minimum amount of data before you can start to see clear patterns in a behavioral code analysis
Incorrect author info
Copy-paste repositories: extract a component into a separate Git repository but fails to migrate its history
Misused squash commits: Git lets you squash commits, effectively merging separate commits into one.
Useful on a smaller scale for a single developer
Disastrous when applied to work committed by several individuals.
The resulting history erases both
Social information
Change coupling data.
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